Learning

Introduction

Learning is a fundamental psychological process that is central to our ability to adapt and thrive in a constantly changing world. From the moment we are born, we begin to learn. We learn to walk, to talk, to read, and to form social relationships. We learn the skills necessary for our work and the customs and values of our culture. In fact, most of our behaviour is not innate but is a product of learning. It is the process that allows us to benefit from experience and to modify our behaviour accordingly.

In psychology, learning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential that occurs as a result of experience. This definition has several key components. 'Relatively permanent' suggests that the change is not just temporary. 'Behaviour or behavioural potential' means that learning may not always be immediately visible in our actions but may be stored as knowledge that can be used later. Finally, 'as a result of experience' distinguishes learning from changes in behaviour that are due to factors like maturation, fatigue, or illness.

This chapter will explore the major psychological theories and paradigms of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. We will also examine cognitive forms of learning, the specific processes involved in verbal and skill learning, and the factors that influence how effectively we learn.

Nature Of Learning

Learning is a complex process that involves acquiring new knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviours. It is inferred from changes in an individual's behaviour. If a person's performance on a task improves over time, we infer that learning has occurred.

Features Of Learning

• Learning always involves experience: Learning can only occur through some form of experience, be it direct (e.g., getting burned by a hot stove) or indirect (e.g., watching someone else get burned).
• Behavioural changes must be relatively permanent: To be considered learning, the change in behaviour must have some stability. Temporary changes due to factors like fatigue, drugs, or illness are not considered learning.
• Learning is an inferred process: We cannot directly observe learning itself. We can only observe a person's performance. Learning is the inferred link between experience and the change in performance.
• Learning involves a sequence of psychological events: It is a process that takes place within the organism.

Paradigms Of Learning

A paradigm is a theoretical model or framework for understanding a phenomenon. In psychology, several major paradigms have been developed to explain how learning occurs. These paradigms are not mutually exclusive; they each explain different types of learning.

1. Classical Conditioning: This paradigm explains how we learn to associate two stimuli, such that one stimulus comes to elicit a response that was originally elicited by the other. It explains the learning of involuntary, reflexive responses.
2. Operant or Instrumental Conditioning: This paradigm explains how we learn to associate a behaviour with its consequences. It explains the learning of voluntary behaviours, which are shaped by rewards and punishments.
3. Observational Learning: This paradigm explains how we learn by observing and imitating the behaviour of others (models).
4. Cognitive Learning: This paradigm emphasizes the role of mental processes, such as thinking, understanding, and insight, in learning.
5. Verbal Learning: This paradigm focuses specifically on how we learn materials that involve language, such as lists of words or prose passages.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a response that was originally elicited by another stimulus. This form of learning by association was first discovered and systematically studied by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the early 20th century through his famous experiments with dogs.

Pavlov's Experiment

Pavlov was initially studying the digestive system of dogs. He noticed that the dogs would begin to salivate not just when they were given food, but also at the sight of the food bowl or the sound of the experimenter's footsteps. He realized that this was a learned response and designed an experiment to study it.

Key Terms and Stages:

1. Before Conditioning:
   • An Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a response. In Pavlov's experiment, the food was the UCS.
   • An Unconditioned Response (UCR) is the unlearned, reflexive response to the UCS. The dog's salivation to the food was the UCR.
   • A Neutral Stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that does not initially elicit the response in question. The sound of a bell was the NS.
2. During Conditioning (The Acquisition Phase):
   • Pavlov repeatedly paired the neutral stimulus (the bell) with the unconditioned stimulus (the food). He would ring the bell just before presenting the food.
3. After Conditioning:
   • After several pairings, the neutral stimulus alone began to elicit the salivation response. The neutral stimulus had become a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). The bell was now the CS.
   • The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus is called the Conditioned Response (CR). The dog's salivation to the bell alone was the CR.

Classical conditioning explains how we learn many of our emotional responses, such as fears and phobias. For example, a child who is bitten by a dog (UCS) may develop a strong fear (UCR). The sight of that dog (which becomes the CS) will then elicit fear (CR). This fear may then generalize to all dogs.

Determinants Of Classical Conditioning

The effectiveness of classical conditioning depends on several factors:

1. Time Relations Between Stimuli: The timing of the presentation of the CS and UCS is crucial. The most effective procedure is forward conditioning, where the CS is presented shortly before the UCS.
2. Type of Unconditioned Stimuli: The nature of the UCS matters. Conditioning proceeds more rapidly with appetitive stimuli (e.g., food) than with aversive stimuli (e.g., an electric shock).
3. Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli: A more intense CS (e.g., a louder bell) is more effective in producing a conditioned response than a less intense one.

Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the probability of a voluntary behaviour is increased or decreased by its consequences (reward or punishment). The term was coined by the American psychologist B.F. Skinner. The organism 'operates' on the environment to produce a consequence, and this consequence, in turn, influences the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated. This type of learning is also called 'instrumental conditioning' because the organism's behaviour is 'instrumental' in producing the outcome.

The foundation for operant conditioning was laid by Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect. Thorndike, through his experiments with cats in a 'puzzle box', concluded that behaviours that are followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Skinner developed these ideas through his experiments with rats and pigeons in an 'operant chamber', or 'Skinner box'. He showed how behaviour could be precisely shaped and controlled by manipulating its consequences.

Determinants Of Operant Conditioning

The key determinant of operant conditioning is the nature of the consequence that follows a behaviour. The two main types of consequences are reinforcement and punishment.

Types Of Reinforcement

A reinforcer is any event or stimulus that increases the probability that the behaviour preceding it will be repeated.

1. Positive Reinforcement

This involves presenting a pleasant or rewarding stimulus after a behaviour, which strengthens that behaviour.

2. Negative Reinforcement

This involves removing an unpleasant or aversive stimulus after a behaviour, which also strengthens that behaviour. It is important to note that negative reinforcement is NOT punishment. It is 'reinforcement' because it increases a behaviour. It is 'negative' because it involves taking something away.

Punishment

A punisher is any event or stimulus that decreases the probability that the behaviour preceding it will be repeated.

1. Positive Punishment

This involves presenting an unpleasant or aversive stimulus after a behaviour, which weakens that behaviour.

2. Negative Punishment

This involves removing a pleasant or rewarding stimulus after a behaviour, which also weakens that behaviour.

Number Of Reinforcement And Other Features

The effectiveness of operant conditioning depends on the amount and quality of reinforcement. A larger or more desirable reinforcer generally leads to faster learning.

Schedules Of Reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement is a rule that determines when and how often a behaviour will be reinforced.

• Continuous Reinforcement: The desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs. This leads to very fast learning, but the behaviour also extinguishes quickly if the reinforcement stops.
• Partial (or Intermittent) Reinforcement: The behaviour is reinforced only some of the time. This leads to slower learning, but the behaviour is much more resistant to extinction. There are four main types of partial reinforcement schedules:
  1. Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses (e.g., a worker is paid for every 10 items they produce).
  2. Variable-Ratio (VR): Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling on a slot machine). This schedule produces a very high and steady rate of responding.
  3. Fixed-Interval (FI): Reinforcement is given for the first response after a fixed amount of time has passed (e.g., getting a monthly salary).
  4. Variable-Interval (VI): Reinforcement is given for the first response after an unpredictable amount of time has passed (e.g., checking for messages on your phone).

Delayed Reinforcement

In general, reinforcement is most effective when it is delivered immediately after the desired behaviour. A delay in reinforcement can significantly slow down the process of learning.

Key Learning Processes

Several key processes are common to both classical and operant conditioning. Understanding these processes helps to explain the dynamics of learned behaviour.

Reinforcement

As discussed, reinforcement is the core process in operant conditioning. It is any consequence that strengthens a behaviour. Reinforcers can be primary (innately satisfying, like food) or secondary (learned, like money).

Extinction

Extinction is the gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response.

• In Classical Conditioning: Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). For example, if Pavlov continued to ring the bell without giving the dog food, the dog's salivation to the bell would gradually decrease and eventually stop.
• In Operant Conditioning: Extinction occurs when a behaviour is no longer followed by reinforcement. For example, if a rat stops receiving a food pellet for pressing a lever, it will eventually stop pressing the lever.

Generalisation And Discrimination

• Generalisation: This is the tendency for a learned response to occur in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
  • In Classical Conditioning: A child who is conditioned to fear a white rat may also show fear of other white, furry objects like a rabbit or a Santa Claus mask (as in the famous 'Little Albert' experiment).
  • In Operant Conditioning: A pigeon that has learned to peck a red key for food may also peck at an orange key.
• Discrimination: This is the learned ability to distinguish between the original stimulus and other similar stimuli, and to respond only to the original stimulus.
  • In Classical Conditioning: The dog learns to salivate only to the sound of a specific bell and not to other similar sounds.
  - In Operant Conditioning: The pigeon learns that it will only get food for pecking the red key, not the orange one.

Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a learned response after a period of rest following its extinction. For example, after a dog's conditioned salivation has been extinguished, if the dog is brought back to the experimental setting after a break, it may again salivate to the sound of the bell, although the response will be weaker. This shows that the original learning was not completely erased but was only suppressed.

Observational Learning

Observational learning, also known as social learning or modeling, is a type of learning that occurs by observing the behaviour of others. This form of learning was championed by the psychologist Albert Bandura, who argued that conditioning principles alone could not account for the full range of human learning. We learn a great deal by watching and imitating the actions of 'models'—our parents, teachers, peers, and figures in the media.

Bandura's famous 'Bobo doll experiment' demonstrated the power of observational learning. In this study, children who watched a video of an adult behaving aggressively towards a large inflatable doll (the Bobo doll) were much more likely to imitate this aggressive behaviour when they were later left alone with the doll, compared to children who had not seen the aggressive model.

Bandura identified four key processes involved in observational learning:

1. Attention: To learn through observation, you must first pay attention to the model's behaviour.
2. Retention: You must be able to remember what you have observed. This involves storing a mental representation of the model's behaviour.
3. Reproduction: You must have the physical ability to reproduce the observed behaviour.
4. Motivation: You are more likely to imitate a behaviour if you are motivated to do so. This motivation is often influenced by observing the consequences of the model's behaviour. If the model is rewarded (vicarious reinforcement), you are more likely to imitate them. If the model is punished (vicarious punishment), you are less likely to do so.

Cognitive Learning

Behaviourist theories like classical and operant conditioning view learning as a simple matter of forming associations between stimuli and responses, without considering the role of internal mental processes. Cognitive learning theories, in contrast, emphasize the role of cognition—thinking, understanding, and insight—in the learning process.

Insight Learning

The concept of insight learning was developed by the Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Köhler through his experiments with chimpanzees. Köhler presented his chimpanzees with problems that required them to get to a banana that was out of reach. For example, the banana might be hung from the ceiling, with several boxes placed in the corner of the cage.

Köhler observed that the chimpanzees did not solve the problem through random trial and error. Instead, after a period of seeming inactivity where they appeared to be surveying the situation, they would suddenly have a flash of 'insight' and would solve the problem in a deliberate way (e.g., by stacking the boxes to reach the banana). Köhler argued that this showed that the chimpanzees were not just learning a response but were mentally restructuring the problem and suddenly perceiving the solution. This sudden perception of the relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to be found, is called insight.

Latent Learning

Latent learning is a form of learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated in behaviour. The concept was introduced by Edward Tolman based on his experiments with rats in mazes.

This experiment was a major challenge to behaviourism, as it showed that learning can occur without reinforcement and can involve the formation of internal mental representations.

Verbal Learning

Verbal learning is a type of learning that is concerned with how we learn materials that involve language, such as words, symbols, and concepts. It is a key part of human learning, particularly in formal education.

Methods Used In Studying Verbal Learning

Psychologists, starting with Hermann Ebbinghaus, have used several standard methods to study verbal learning in the laboratory:

1. Paired-Associates Learning: The participant is shown a list of pairs of words (e.g., Cat-Tree, Table-Sun). Later, they are given the first word of each pair (the stimulus) and are asked to recall the second word (the response).
2. Serial Learning: The participant is given a list of words and is asked to recall them in the exact same order in which they were presented.
3. Free Recall: The participant is given a list of words and is asked to recall as many of them as possible, in any order.

Determinants Of Verbal Learning

Research has identified several factors that influence how easily we can learn verbal material:

• Meaningfulness of the Material: It is much easier to learn words that are meaningful (e.g., 'table') than to learn nonsense syllables (e.g., 'zof').
• Length of the List: The longer the list of items to be learned, the more time and effort it takes.
• Time Given for Learning: The more time allowed for learning, the better the recall.
• Serial Position Effect: In serial learning, items at the beginning (primacy effect) and at the end (recency effect) of a list are recalled better than items in the middle.

Concept Learning

Concept learning is a form of learning that involves identifying the common properties of a class of objects or events. It is a fundamental cognitive process that allows us to organize our knowledge and to make sense of the world.

What Is A Concept?

A concept is a mental category that we use to group together objects, events, or ideas that share certain common features or 'attributes'. For example, the concept 'bird' includes a variety of different creatures (sparrows, crows, penguins) that all share certain attributes (they have feathers, wings, and beaks).

• Artificial Concepts: These are concepts that have a clear and well-defined set of rules. For example, the concept 'square' is defined by the rule 'a four-sided figure with equal sides and right angles'.
• Natural Concepts: Most of the concepts we use in everyday life are natural concepts. They do not have a precise set of defining features but are organized around a 'prototype' or a 'best example' of the category. For instance, a sparrow is a more prototypical example of a bird than a penguin is.

We learn concepts by identifying the relevant features that define the concept and by ignoring the irrelevant ones.

Skill Learning

Skill learning refers to the process of acquiring the ability to perform a task smoothly and efficiently. Skills can be cognitive (e.g., learning to play chess) or motor (e.g., learning to ride a bicycle or play the piano). The acquisition of a skill is a gradual process that involves moving from a conscious, effortful performance to an automatic, effortless one.

Nature Of Skills

A skill is a sequence of responses that are performed in a coordinated and well-organized manner to achieve a goal.

Phases Of Skill Acquisition

The psychologist Paul Fitts described the process of skill learning as occurring in three phases:

1. Cognitive Phase: In the initial phase, the learner tries to understand the task. They have to pay close attention to every step and consciously think about what they are doing. Performance at this stage is slow, full of errors, and requires a great deal of mental effort.
2. Associative Phase: With practice, the different parts of the skill become associated and more coordinated. The learner relies less on conscious instruction and more on feedback to refine their performance. Errors decrease, and performance becomes smoother and faster.
3. Autonomous Phase: In the final phase, the skill becomes automatic. It can be performed with very little conscious thought or attention. The person can often perform the skill while doing something else at the same time (e.g., an expert driver can hold a conversation while driving). Performance is smooth, efficient, and effortless.

Transfer Of Learning

Transfer of learning refers to the influence that learning one task or skill has on the learning or performance of another task or skill.

• Positive Transfer: When learning one skill helps in the learning of another skill. For example, learning to ride a scooter can make it easier to learn to ride a motorcycle.
• Negative Transfer: When learning one skill hinders the learning of another skill. For example, a person who is used to a car with a manual gear system may initially find it difficult to drive a car with an automatic gear system.
• Zero Transfer: When learning one skill has no effect on the learning of another. For example, learning to swim is unlikely to have any effect on learning to type.

General (Generic) Transfer

This refers to the transfer of general principles and attitudes learned in one context to another. For example, a person who learns good study habits in history may be able to apply these general principles to learn geography more effectively.

Specific Transfer

This refers to the transfer of specific skills or content. The degree of specific transfer depends on the similarity between the two tasks.

Factors Facilitating Learning

Several factors can influence the efficiency and effectiveness of learning.

Continuous Vs Partial Reinforcement

As discussed under operant conditioning, continuous reinforcement (reinforcing every correct response) leads to faster acquisition of a new behaviour. However, partial reinforcement (reinforcing only some of the correct responses) makes the learned behaviour much more resistant to extinction.

Motivation

Motivation is a crucial factor in learning. A motivated learner is more likely to pay attention, put in effort, and persist in the face of difficulties.

• Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to learn for its own sake, out of curiosity and interest.
• Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to learn in order to obtain an external reward (like good grades or a prize) or to avoid punishment.

Preparedness For Learning

Organisms seem to be biologically 'prepared' to learn certain associations more easily than others. This is known as biological preparedness. For example, it is much easier to condition a fear of snakes or spiders (which were a threat to our ancestors) than a fear of flowers or electrical outlets.

The Learner : Learning Styles

Individuals differ in the way they prefer to learn. The idea of learning styles suggests that people have different preferred modes of learning and that learning is more effective when the teaching method matches the learner's style. While this idea is very popular, it is important to note that the scientific evidence for the effectiveness of matching teaching to specific learning styles is weak.

However, the concept does highlight the important fact that learners are not all the same. They differ in their aptitudes, personalities, and prior knowledge, and these differences can affect how they learn. A good learning environment is one that is flexible and offers a variety of ways for students to engage with the material.

Learning Disabilities

A learning disability is a neurological disorder that affects the brain's ability to receive, process, store, and respond to information. A person with a learning disability has difficulty in one or more areas of learning, even though they have normal or above-normal intelligence.

Symptoms Of Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are not a single disorder but a group of disorders. Some common types and their symptoms include:

• Dyslexia: A difficulty with reading. Symptoms can include difficulty in recognizing letters and words, reading fluently, and understanding what is read.
• Dysgraphia: A difficulty with writing. Symptoms can include problems with spelling, grammar, punctuation, and handwriting.
• Dyscalculia: A difficulty with mathematics. Symptoms can include problems with understanding numbers, performing calculations, and remembering math facts.

It is crucial to identify learning disabilities early and to provide students with specialized educational support and interventions to help them overcome their difficulties.

Applications Of Learning Principles

The principles of learning discovered by psychologists have been applied in a wide range of fields to solve practical problems.

• Therapy: Principles of classical and operant conditioning are used in behaviour therapy to treat problems like phobias (through techniques like systematic desensitization), and to manage behaviour in clinical settings. Biofeedback is a technique where a person learns to control their own physiological responses (like heart rate or muscle tension) by getting feedback about them.
• Education: The principles of learning are used to design effective teaching methods. Programmed learning is a technique based on operant conditioning that breaks down a complex subject into a series of small, manageable steps, providing immediate reinforcement for each correct step.
• Child-Rearing: Parents can use principles like positive reinforcement and modeling to teach their children desirable behaviours.
• Workplace: Organizations use learning principles to design employee training programmes and to motivate workers.